The Brief

It was another great year for food in Los Angeles, and I did my best to try as much of it as possible. Several small independent businesses continued to make waves with delicious plates worthy of praise, from quality bites throughout Los Angeles and Orange County to ones outside city limits worth seeking out.

As we see 2023 near its end, I’ve compiled 23 of my favorite dishes and dining experiences from the past year into one banger of a list.

Let's dig in!

1. Apollonia’s Pizza square slice

Not all square slices are created equal, but the one from Apollonia's Pizza might be the best I’ve had recently. It’s both perfectly crusty on the outside and soft and airy on the inside. Get the pepperoni slice and add burrata and hot honey, and it will feel like you are eating a decadent pizza cake.

2. Mortadella sandwich from Pane Bianco

The mortadella sandwich at Pane Bianco is as heavenly as it is large.

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Words almost fail to describe what it's like when consuming this sandwich from Chris Bianco’s sandwich spot at The ROW near downtown Los Angeles. But I’m still going to try. From the pillowy soft bread that’s so heavenly, you feel like you can take a nap in it, to the apricot mostarda, which is both savory and sweet at the same time, paired with the slightly smoky flavors of the mortadella and a side of pickled vegetables that provides an equal amount of salty crunch after each bite.

3. Danny Palumbo Substack Newsletter

Technically, not something I ate. But it still lands on a list recapping my favorite food discoveries of the year. Palumbo is a pasta chef who makes pasta from his small apartment and sells it online, which I’m embarrassed to say I haven’t yet tried. However, his substack newsletter, The Move, has become a favorite of mine for his musings on all things food, not to mention the L.A. dining scene. A bonus has been the different recipe ideas he tries out and shares with his readers. He recently featured his take on YouTube chef Matty Mattheson’s Butter Chicken recipe, which Palumbo recommended serving with bolillo rolls from Ralphs. Genius stuff.

4. Mental State Coffee

I’m almost tempted to gatekeep this one because it’s that good, but I can’t hide it anymore. Mental State Coffee is an L.A.-based coffee purveyor who sells his beans over Instagram. He specializes in different varietals from Mexico. They are some of the most flavorful beans I’ve tasted recently.

5. Cookies from Fat + Flour

The soft yet crispy cookies from Fat & Flour are the perfect treat.

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6. All Seasons Brewing Company in Mid-City

All Season Brewing Company on La Brea Boulevard is a great place to hang with family and friends.

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As someone who’s been going to the breweries since I was of legal age, I’m always searching for new ones, especially now that I have a family. Finding a good place for all of us to hang out and feel comfortable remains at the top of my priorities. All Seasons Brewing Company is just that type of place. Located in Mid-City, and family friendly, it offers plenty of brews, a full bar, and some great eats from Chica’s Tacos, with plenty of meat and plant-based options that will no doubt satisfy all the taste buds in your group. While enjoying your food and drink, take advantage of their skee ball, which will be way more fun than you remember.

7. Giardiniera from Grá in Echo Park

The fresh tasting Giardiniera salad at Grá in Echo Park makes for the perfect accompaniment with a glass of natural wine.

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The pickle tray meets salad dish at the Echo Park pizza restaurant Grá is a sharable plate served at the beginning of the meal. The fresh-tasting dish with vegetables containing all types with different textures, including romanesco cauliflower, green beans, and carrots, manages to steal the show from the rest of the meal. It’s the perfect accompaniment with a glass of wine.

8. Steak Dinner from Jocko’s in Nipomo

My family took a trip to the Central Coast for Thanksgiving. Aside from wine tasting, we ended up at a Santa Maria-style BBQ institution, Jocko’s. It's one of the last places to specialize in the California-specific barbecue style and still manages to wow its diners every night with various cuts of meat and great sides.

9. Oysters from Del Mar Ostioneria in Los Angeles

Enjoy some of the freshest-tasting oysters at Del Mar Ostioneria, the tan-colored food truck in the same lot as a wedding chapel on La Brea Avenue. Make it official with these oysters, splashed with the bright combination of Clamato, lime juice, chopped cucumbers, ponzu sauce, and a sprinkling of crushed chiltepin pepper. Slurping down a couple of these babies will only enhance the feeling of exuberance.

10. Totti from La Parolaccia in Long Beach

The Roman-style, family-owned Italian osteria in Long Beach is a heartfelt restaurant. A great example is the Totti, a half-calzone and half pizza. The calzone side is stuffed with cheese, mushrooms, and ground sausage. The pizza side contains mushrooms, sausage, and cheese, showered with peppery arugula. The dish is named after a famed Italian footballer, Francesco Totti, and will make you feel like a champion after having it.

11. The Caramelo from Tacos La Rueda in Bellflower

The Caramelo steals the show at La Rueda taqueria in Bellflower.

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Sonora-style Mexican food has continued to ascend in popularity. La Rudeda is a small but mighty strip mall-based taqueria in Bellflower. Owned and operated by Omar and Alan Cejudo Hernandez, it is a love letter to their home state, with their soft-tasting flour tortillas to their smoke-kissed carne asada. Try the Carmelo, a great combination of both, with silky guacamole and Monterey jack cheese.

12. Flatbread from Forn Al Hara in Anaheim

The flatbreads from Forn Al Hara come with a variety of different sizes and toppings.

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Located in the Little Arabia section of Anaheim, Forn Al Hara is a Lebanese restaurant specializing in various flatbreads. They come in lots of different sizes and toppings. The most popular option is the manaeesh, which typically comes with topped spices, cheese, ground beef, or sausage. However, a standout for me is the labneh with asel, a combination of strained yogurt, similar to cream cheese, covered with thick, rich honey. It’s so simple yet so undoubtedly satisfying.

13. Birra de Chivo Bowl from Saucy Chick Goat Mafia

The birra de chivo bowl at Saucy Chick Goat Mafia in Pasadena is as comforting as it is filling.

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When word got out that Saucy Chick Goat Mafia, the mash-up team of two of L.A.'s most exciting pop-ups, had set up shop in a new location, I knew I owed them a visit. Saucy Chick, specializing in Indo-Mex style cooking, is known for its various spiced roast chicken dishes. Goat Mafia is Juan Garcia, a fourth-generation birriero, using his recipes from his family’s roots in Jalisco, MX. The team met at Smorgasburg, Los Angeles, before setting up shop for a small stint on the west side, and they have now landed at their new location in East Pasadena. Garcia’s talent is on full display with the Birria de Chivo bowl, featuring the perfectly tender and flavorful goat meat containing sui generis levels of gaminess, giving the dish its personality and depth with each bite. It's paired with rice that has hints of cumin alongside the exceptionally creamy Mayocoba beans and soft, warm corn tortillas that provide for the perfect taco-making accompaniment.

14. Dollar Hits in East Hollywood

The selection of skewers is vast at Dollar Hits, a family owned DIY Filipino barbecue restaurant, in East Hollywood

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The semi-outdoor DIY Pinoy barbeque restaurant is one of my favorite dining experiences of the last year. When you arrive, you choose from an array of pre-cooked items from chicken, beef, pork, fish, and tofu skewers that run about $1.25 a pop. You grab an aluminum tray (the size of a small roasting pan), collect as many as you can handle, and pay. Afterward, head out to the outdoor seating in their parking lot, where you’ll find long rectangular grills filled with burning hot coals. Find your place at the grill, plot down your collected skewers, and let nature take its course. It all heats and chars quickly, so you must keep an eye on it while you bask in the coolness of this tremendous L.A.-specific experience.

15. Shins pizza in Cypress Park

More pizza? Yes, but this time, we’re headed to Shins in Cypress Park, the northeast L.A. neighborhood located directly off the 5 Freeway, smack dab in the middle of Highland Park and Glassell Park. Yes, there are a lot of parks to keep track of, but once you clear that hurdle, there is some delicious ‘za at the end of that rainbow. (The walk-up counter is next to another favorite spot of mine, Barra Santos, a Portuguese restaurant.) While you can order whole pies, Shins features all their pizzas as a slice option, so it’s easy to try a few. The Mortadella slice is a standout, and here’s why: the white pie contains mozzarella, garlic, and a healthy dollop of ricotta, then is topped with an entire slice of Mortadella. It’s a move that feels both lackadaisical and intentional at the same time. Perfect for a hip slice joint for the budding east side neighborhood. But once you get past the pastiche factor of your surroundings, biting into the crusty yet chewy slice will make you realize it's worth the hype.

16. Teriyaki Plate from 2 Scoops of Rice

There are plenty of teriyaki plates, but coming across this one from the Polylesian-style barbeque pop-up felt extra special. The owners are Samoan and pop up throughout the L.A. area, so watch their IG. The plate I ordered came with perfectly charred barbecue chicken and short ribs that were expertly marinated, tender, and juicy, along with a side of fried shrimp whose batter effectively encapsulated the shrimp at a level I hadn’t yet experienced. The dish comes with two scoops of rice, as mentioned in their name, topped with furikake, a Japanese seasoning typically made with toasted sesame seeds and nori, and a small portion of Hawaiian mac salad. Share with another person or save it for leftovers as it travels well.

17. Oxtail mac and cheese egg roll from Chef Zagga Irie Vibez

A couple of years back, I heard about Chef Zagga Irie Vibez, a Jamaican cuisine pop-up based in Bellflower. I was immediately intrigued by how tireless and committed the young upstart chef from the 562 was about sharing his cuisine. Zagga is known for his exquisite jerk chicken and oxtail. However, it wasn’t until his recent Fall Festival that he unveiled his oxtail and mac cheese egg roll. While I tend to shy away from such culinary mash-ups as they tend to be heavy on grease, Zagga’s eggrolls are light and airy and maintain the integrity of their key ingredients, allowing both to shine through perfectly. Not a regular menu item, but you can bet at his next fest I’ll be first in line to have them again cause they are that good.

18. Padma Lakshmi Mango Lasi Cupcakes from Sprinkles

Padma Lakshmi mango lasi cupcakes from Sprinkles were the perfect sweet treat for the Diwali celebration this year

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When it comes to cupcakes from Sprinkles, I’m not always one who you’ll find first in line. The boutique cupcake chain, known for its cupcake ATMs, was all the rage a decade ago. So it had been a minute since we’d had one of their deliciously lush desserts. As part of the Diwali celebration, TV personality Padma Lakshmi partnered with the company to create her version of a cupcake that celebrates her Indian heritage. Based on the popular yogurt-based drink, the cupcake contains rich mango cake piped with a creamy curd center and a blend of cinnamon and cardamom-spiced yogurt frosting. It’s an extremely beautiful bite.

19. Almeja Chocolata from Holbox

Almeja Chocolata (Chocolate clams) from Holbox are great for slurping down with friends

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The James Beard semi-finalist Holbox is located in the Mercado La Paloma and rarely misses when it comes to their dishes, like the sweet and salty tasting clams, great to toss back with friends with a beer.

20. Pulpo a la Gallega at Serrano

At the Spanish pop-up Serrano, run by chef Jorge Serrano, there’s much to choose from regarding his menu since it’s all so good. Ultimately, what stuck out for me in 2023 is his pulpo dish, made up of the velvety textures of expertly cooked octopus atop a soft bed of mashed Yukon gold potatoes, sprinkled with smoked paprika and drizzled with arbequina olive oil.

21. Specialty Dynasty Xiao Long Bao at Paradise Dynasty

The multi-colored dumpling from the Singaporean food powerhouse, Paradise Dynasty, is an incredible dish not just because of the amazing flavors of each XLB. Still, the multi-colored hues of each make the experience all the more memorable. Truth be told, I’ve always been a sucker for this dish, and these are some of my favorites in recent memory.

22. Agua Chile Negro from Simón in Silver lake

The Silver Lake seafood lochera is another favorite dining experience this year. All of their tacos are for around five bucks and are filling and inventive, such as their whole soft shell crab and fish al-pastor, all wrapped in freshly made blue corn tortillas that sparkle with flavor. However, if you are looking to get the most out of your visit to the little blue truck, then try their agua chile negro made with shrimp bathed in smoked tomatillo sauce.

23. Tacos Los Cholos in Anaheim

On a recent visit to Anaheim, I visited the temple of smoke known as Taco Los Cholos. I give that name to its devotion to grilled meats, some of the best I’ve had in recent memory. From the perfectly charred carne asada to tender-as-the-night ribeye tacos, they make for one helluva bite. Upon arrival at your table, they don’t look like much, just tortilla and meat. They're not looking to dazzle your Instagram discovery page. Instead, they are packed with a ton of flavor and can still fit into the palm of your hand. All that to say, you need these tacos and once eaten, you'll frequently be willing to risk it all by braving the traffic just to get a taste.

A room on the second floor of a Camarillo building is quickly filling with smoke. From the far end of the room, flames start to shoot across the ceiling.

While the flames and smoke are real, the danger is not.

This is the Ventura County Fire Department’s new Live Fire Training Complex. A firefighter is controlling the flames and smoke with what looks like a TV remote control.

The $32 million project includes live fire training buildings, a dedicated ladder training prop, and other facilities designed to give firefighters hands-on experience.

"This complex has a 'Class A' combustible burn building, which we are standing in now," said Ventura County Fire Department Training Chief Casey Rosdaile. "The 'Class B' building is propane-fed. This building allows us to train in real fire conditions and real fire behavior. That building (the 'Class B' building) allows us to do a lot more of the operational steps. There's always a gap between the simulated thing and a real thing, and we're trying to limit that as much as possible. That way, when someone trains, they aren't going to be the real thing and say that it's nothing like they practiced."

The buildings are made of concrete, so they won't be affected by the flames and smoke. The smoke kind that's used on movie shoots, so it doesn't leave clothing with the smoky smell like you get from a brush fire.

He added that the new facilities can help train firefighters, as well as other first responders, on ways to deal with a number of emergencies.

"These buildings can host anything from sheriff's operations to (simulated) structure fires, to search and rescue," said Rosdaile. "There are a million things you can do in here. You can train 50 to 60 firefighters at a time, so it really gives us a lot of flexibility."

The two new buildings are just part of the fire department’s fire training complex. It covers 22 acres of land on the southeast side of Camarillo Airport. There are nearly 18,000 square feet of indoor training space, with 32 training rooms.

The dedicated live fire training buildings give firefighters experience with scenarios that were often difficult and time-consuming to create.

"We would light the materials, and let the fire conditions and environment build, to create a realistic training environment, and then send the folks in to extinguish it," said Ventura County Fire Chief Dustin Gardner. "Then, we would have to clean it all out, and reset it, and start again. We would get a couple of burns a day done. Now, we're getting multiple burns an hour."

Gardner said it's a complex they've sought to create for years.

"This facility allows us to close the gap between training and reality. This allows us to expose our firefighters to as realistic an environment as we can repetitively, and under safe conditions."

Among the props at the facility is a vehicle chassis equipped with gas lines, which can be ignited, so firefighters can practice fighting those types of fires.

"This is our vehicle prop, and it lets us simulate fire. We can push the fire to different parts of the vehicle, so we can set it in the interior, in the cab, the wheel well, as well as the engine compartment," said Ventura County Fire Department Quartermaster Jake Finley. "It creates a good learning environment, with teachable moments. You can see in the background some of the old vehicles (we used to burn salvaged vehicles), and it was a really intensive process. We couldn't repeat it as quickly."

While the Ventura County Fire Department owns and operates the facility, the goal is for it to be used to train first responders from throughout the region. It’s already hosted firefighters from a number of other agencies in the county, as well as teams from neighboring counties.

When the war with Iran started, one of the top economic concerns globally was the slowdown of oil shipments. But there was another critical export that got stuck in the region when hostilities began: fertilizer.

Before the war, around one-third of the world's fertilizer transported by sea passed through the Strait of Hormuz, according to UN Trade and Development. The waterway has become a shipping chokepoint in recent months.

With the strait closed, fertilizer shipments from the Persian Gulf slumped and prices rose, affecting countries all around the world that import fertilizer. The war also created a global shortage of natural gas, a key component in nitrogen fertilizer manufacturing.

It caused a massive headache for U.S. farmers who were hit with higher fertilizer prices and limited availability just as they were deciding what to plant for the upcoming growing season.

But the costs borne by farmers don't necessarily get passed on to consumers, and food system experts say they're unlikely to have a major impact on the retail prices of fruit and vegetables.

"Consumers are going to see higher food prices come September to January, once harvests start coming in, and the few months thereafter," said Chris Barrett, a professor of agricultural economics at Cornell University. "Very little of that is going to be directly attributable to fertilizer."

That's because food inflation is generally driven by larger factors affecting multiple parts of the food supply chain, such as fewer workers and high fuel costs.

US farmers are rethinking their plans

About one-third of the fertilizer used by U.S. farmers is imported, according to The Fertilizer Institute, an industry trade group. TFI Vice President of Public Affairs Christopher Glen said little of that comes through the Strait of Hormuz.

"But we get impacted in a big way because the fertilizer market is global," Glen said over email. "Even if those tons from the Mideast aren't coming to the US, they are still tons that have been removed from the market and need to be made up elsewhere. That's where the pressure comes from."

An American Farm Bureau Federation survey released in April reported that 70% of respondents said they couldn't afford all the fertilizer they needed this season.

Some farmers are more vulnerable to price swings than others. Producers of corn and wheat, which rely heavily on fertilizer, can spend around a third of their operating costs on fertilizer alone. Half of the farmers who responded to a survey released by the National Corn Growers Association in early April said they wouldn't apply the full amount of fertilizer to their corn crop this year, due largely to higher costs and limited availability.

Because farmers often secure their fertilizer stores well before a growing season begins, some weren't seriously affected by the price swings created by the war in Iran. (Iran said it closed the Strait of Hormuz shortly after it was attacked by the U.S. and Israel at the end of February. U.S. corn growing season typically begins in April.) But they are worried about the future: corn growers who responded to the survey were twice as concerned about the 2027 corn crop as they were about this year's.

This season, some farmers may opt to plant crops that require less nitrogen fertilizer than corn, such as soy beans, in response to rising costs.

According to USDA data, farmers are expected to plant 95.3 million acres of corn this year, down from 98.8 million acres last year. But the total acreage of soybeans is predicted to rise to 85.4 million acres this year from 81.2 million acres last year.

US grocery prices probably won't take a huge hit

If higher fertilizer costs lead to smaller harvests, that could contribute to modest retail price hikes. A TD Economics analysis estimated that a 2-5% production shortfall in North America could grow food inflation by around 0.1-0.5 percentage points in 2027.

Sponsor MessageBut experts say the costs of the fertilizer shortage will be largely shouldered by farmers.

The amount a farmer spends on fertilizer is a small fraction of the total cost to grow food and get it to grocery store shelves. Just 12 cents of every dollar U.S. consumers spend on food goes to farms, while the rest is received by transportation companies, processors, wholesalers and grocery stores, according to the USDA. And the USDA's National Agricultural Statistics Service reported that U.S. farms spent around 7% of their budgets on fertilizer, lime and soil conditioners in 2024 (though farmers growing crops more reliant on fertilizer such as corn would spend more).

Additionally, farmers don't have much bargaining power to negotiate with wholesalers for higher crop prices when their operating costs rise, according to Rob Vos, a senior research fellow at the International Food Policy Research Institute. "Those buyers will go to other farmers to try and get it cheaper," he said.

But there are factors other than the fertilizer crunch that are more likely to cause food prices to jump. Barrett said the global food industry is facing a "really unpleasant layer cake" of pressures, from tariffs and extreme weather to higher prices on labor, fuel and fertilizer.

"No one of those by itself is especially painful," he said. "But when you add them all up, they become quite painful together."

In parts of Africa and Asia, the effects of the fertilizer shortage could be far worse. Jorge Moreira da Silva, Executive Director of the UN Office for Project Services, said in April that the reduction of shipments through the Strait of Hormuz may prove "very significant and severe" for poorer countries. Less-developed countries that rely heavily on fertilizer from the Persian Gulf include Sudan, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Somalia.

The fertilizer industry is recovering — and may adapt in the process

Some fertilizer prices have begun to fall again in recent weeks, after the U.S. and Iran reached a deal to reopen the Strait of Hormuz last month.

The Trump administration has also taken steps to lower fertilizer costs for American farmers. This week, Trump temporarily suspended "countervailing duties" on certain phosphate imports, which are added to some imported goods to cancel out subsidies provided by foreign governments.

Still, it will be a while before the fertilizer sector returns to normal. Vos estimated that it could take weeks or months for fertilizer manufacturing plants to come back online and return to previous production levels. If high prices stick around, that could snarl the plans of U.S. farmers preparing to plant cool-season crops this autumn, he added.

Barrett said the trouble with the fertilizer industry has also gotten farmers thinking about how they can protect themselves from these kinds of supply-chain disruptions in the future and looking for other ways to replenish their soil, such as manure, compost and cover crops.

"Just like we're seeing more people interested in electric vehicles because the price of gasoline and diesel has gone up, you see more farmers interested in other ways of replenishing soil nutrients as the price of fertilizer has gone up," he said.

A consequential act of defiance secured tea's place as perhaps the most iconic beverage of America's colonial era.

The Boston Tea Party became an essential ingredient in the recipe for revolution in the following years.

But tea wasn't the only hot beverage with a prominent role in America's fight for independence.

Coffee was an important part of American culture from the start. And coffeehouses were essential, too — serving as hubs for brewing ideas of independence.

As the United States celebrates 250 years, here's what to know about America's early history of coffee.

Colonists were drinking coffee long before the United States existed

Europeans brought coffee with them when they came to America.

"The first documented example of a mortar and pestle used to grind coffee beans was on the Mayflower" in 1620, says historian Michelle Craig McDonald, the author of Coffee Nation: How One Commodity Transformed the Early United States.

"The fact that coffee was present so early is not surprising if you think about it," McDonald says. "A number of those who were on the Mayflower came to North America from Amsterdam, which was a major coffee trading center in Western Europe by the 17th century."

The first coffeehouse in the colonies opened in 1676 in Boston, a century before the U.S. declared independence, she says. Some taverns sold coffee even earlier.

The Boston Tea Party probably wasn't the dramatic turning point toward coffee that some claim

On the night of Dec. 16, 1773, disgruntled colonists boarded three ships moored in Boston Harbor and threw overboard more than 92,000 pounds of tea owned by the British East India Company.

Tensions had been building between the Crown and the colonies over the previous decade, as Britain tried to levy taxes on its colonies to recoup war debts.

The Boston Tea Party protest was targeted at the British government's passing of the Tea Act in 1773, which granted the East India Company a monopoly over tea sales in the colonies. While the British had removed some unpopular taxes in the preceding years, they left tea taxes in place. Colonial merchants were especially upset that the act allowed the East India Company to undercut their tea business.

To build solidarity for their cause of sovereignty, some patriots called on colonialists to swear off tea in favor of coffee. It's why many histories point to the Boston Tea Party as a turning point when Americans switched from mostly drinking tea to mostly coffee. The anti-tea sentiment was immortalized in a founding father's now-famous letter.

In July 1774, John Adams (before he became the second U.S. president) wrote to his wife Abigail, recounting an incident during his travels. After a long day, he asked the proprietor of the house where he was lodging for a cup of tea, provided it was smuggled and free of British taxes.

" 'No sir, said she, we have renounced all Tea in this Place. I cant make Tea, but I'le make you Coffee.' Accordingly I have drank Coffee every Afternoon since, and have borne it very well. Tea must be universally renounced. I must be weaned, and the sooner, the better," Adams wrote.

Despite John Adams claiming a newfound patriotic duty to appreciate coffee, McDonald says colonists had been drinking lots of coffee all along.

She studied advertisements from the 1760s and '70s to estimate how many shops sold coffee versus tea. Even before the Boston Tea Party, she says, "coffee is definitely more broadly available than tea is."

A big reason? It was cheaper. "Its price again per pound is significantly less, which tells you about its availability, its accessibility to drinkers."

Historians say it's hard to definitively compare tea with coffee consumption, though, as official records from before America gained independence were inconsistent.

And smuggling was rampant, making official records even less reliable.

"There is a vast amount of smuggling," says Joyce Chaplin, a professor of early American history at Harvard University. "So they're not paying formal duties on tea that they get from the Dutch. They're probably not paying formal duties on coffee from the French Caribbean."

And Chaplin notes that people who loudly proclaimed a new appreciation for coffee over tea weren't always doing what they said. It could have been political pandering. "I do not drink tea that comes via the East India Company," she posits someone of the era saying. "But, you know, other sources are fine. Ditto for the coffee."

Coffeehouses were a hub for revolutionary ideas 

In the colonial era, coffeehouses were hotbeds for seditious thought — where people planned acts of revolution.

"Coffeehouses are kind of famous for being places where people think and plot things," says Mark Pendergrast, author of Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World.

A coffeehouse called the Green Dragon served as one of the locations for planning the Boston Tea Party. Years earlier, the Old London Coffeehouse in Philadelphia was a meeting place for strategizing responses to another British tax, the Stamp Act of 1765.

In Britain, coffeehouses were nicknamed "penny universities," Pendergrast says: "because for a penny you could go and learn a whole lot by sitting around in a coffeehouse and discussing everything." The same attitude traveled across the Atlantic.

Early American coffeehouses would commonly have city business directories, libraries of newspapers and currency exchange information. People could get maritime insurance there or buy things at auction.

"There's a reason why coffeehouses become places of colonial protest … in the 1760s, in the 1770s, and it's because it is the place where traders and merchants tended to gather," historian McDonald says. "That's where they heard about the economics of the day."

Taverns were more likely than coffeehouses to have rooms for rent and stables for travelers' horses. They were also more likely to have food.

Interestingly enough, coffeehouses could serve alcohol and taverns could serve coffee.

But the vibes at each were different. While women and men could "riotously drink together" in taverns, coffeehouses often didn't allow women, according to Chaplin of Harvard.

"The sense was the coffeehouse was the place where you had a clear head — to argue about politics, to find out what was going on in the business world, to cut a business deal," she says. "Whereas taverns were places where, in a sense, you refueled."

Still, she says, the lines between the two "weren't completely clear."

The cost of America's revolutionary drink 

Coffee (and tea for that matter) was part of a growing globalization of trade around this time.

Much of the coffee in the colonies was grown in the Caribbean, while tea came from China.

Supply was up and coffee was easier than ever to drink. "Trade and frankly, imperialism, are making it possible for … colonial products to be produced and transferred to other parts of the world in greater and greater quantities," says Chaplin.

As a result, by the time of the American Revolution, both coffee and tea were in reach for many common people. "They're both becoming affordable luxuries," Chaplin says.

Fancy coffee and tea paraphernalia were also part of this increasingly global market. Middle and upper-class people would have wanted special implements for drinking these beverages and a place to drink it. That meant they needed wood for coffee tables, silver for coffeepots, and porcelain for teapots.

"These two beverages are encouraging people to consume all kinds of new stuff," says Chaplin. "The mahogany that comes out of the Caribbean, the china coming out of China, silver that is mined principally in South and Central America and processed in a lot of the parts of the world."

There's a dark side to coffee's history, too. The plantations that supplied the crop ran on the labor of enslaved people. By 1790, half of the world's coffee was being grown in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, in what is today Haiti, Pendergrast says, where slaves were routinely mistreated, raped and murdered.

The Declaration of Independence, signed in 1776, is infamous for a contradiction. It proclaimed that "all men are created equal," but failed to acknowledge the hundreds of thousands of enslaved people living in America at the time.

Coffee carried a similar contradiction. The beverage that fueled conversations that inspired America's fight for independence — centered on the ideals of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness — depended on enslavement.

"Coffee had this paradoxical effect, that it did promote revolutionary thought," Pendergrast says. "But it was also grown by slaves."

Wearing gloves and a KN95 mask, Emmanuel Carrera Ruedas hunkered down near a storm drain, just steps away from the smoldering Lineage warehouse fire, as he filmed himself pointing to what he described as insulation and foam flowing into the drain.

“The thing about this water is that it all gets dumped straight into the L.A. River,” Carrera Ruedas, of Cudahy, told his Instagram followers in a June 22 reel.

In the past two weeks, Carrera Ruedas has spent evenings gathering water samples outside Lineage and from the L.A. River as he and other community scientists are partnering with experts from UCLA and Columbia University to learn what’s in the runoff. Samples will soon be sent to a lab in New York.

“For far too long, the river has just been a drainage, a dumping site for companies,” said Carrera Ruedas, 27, who often encounters toads, birds and fish inhabiting its ecosystem.

“There is life in there,” he told Boyle Heights Beat. “We’re all in proximity to the river, and that’s kind of the vein that runs through the city that really connects us all.”

Community-led testing

Since the Lineage fire ignited June 17 in Boyle Heights, residents, environmental advocates and researchers have taken it upon themselves to find out what’s in the air and water. They’ve launched their own sampling efforts, seeking answers about what people have been breathing and contaminants that may have entered the L.A. River.

The community-led testing comes as residents have reported eye irritation, nausea and headaches while questioning whether the government has done enough to capture the fire’s environmental and public health impacts.

Those concerns are especially alarming in Boyle Heights, East L.A. and neighboring Southeast L.A. communities, where neighbors have long faced disproportionate pollution burdens.

Crews navigate around piles of debris and puddles of water on the eastern edge of the Lineage warehouse as they begin cleanup efforts on June 25, 2026.

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Andrew Lopez

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Boyle Heights Beat

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An estimated 31,700 workers, about 81% of whom are Latino, live in the county and city zones where a smoke advisory was issued, according to new data from the UCLA Latino Policy & Politics Institute. They work in health care, manufacturing and food service industries. About half of the workers earn $3,333 or less a month, below L.A. County’s “very low income” threshold.

The area also experiences diesel pollution levels three times the county average, as well as higher rates of asthma and cardiovascular disease-related emergency department visits, according to UCLA. Nearly 10,000 households in the area lack air conditioning.

“This is not only an air quality emergency but also a worker and environmental justice issue,” UCLA said.

Behind the push for environmental justice

For years, East Yard Communities for Environmental Justice has shed light on how Latinos on the Eastside often bear the brunt of the region’s pollution and climate disasters, such as the East L.A. oil spill in late May that dumped nearly 25,000 gallons of crude oil onto streets and into the L.A. River. For the organization, “We are just trying to breathe” is a common phrase.

“Something I’ve told many people over a long period of time is, ‘We’re not polar bears. We’re not whales.’ Nobody is coming to save us. We have to step up and defend ourselves,” said mark! Lopez with East Yard Communities for Environmental Justice.

Antonia Castillo, 73, helps her grandson Aiden Velez put on a mask near their Boyle Heights home.

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Andrew Lopez

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Boyle Heights Beat

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East Yard members opted to take air samples themselves, dissatisfied with the South Coast Air Quality Management District’s assessment of the fire’s air-quality impacts. They placed sorbent tubes, which Lopez described as passive air monitors, outside nearby homes for about seven days. Soon, they’ll send the findings to a Columbia University lab with the help of UC Irvine.

What officials have done so far

South Coast AQMD said it conducted “mobile monitoring” during the first two days of the fire that found “significantly elevated concentrations” of particulate matter. The agency then deployed particulate matter monitors at Eastman Avenue Elementary and Robert Louis Stevenson Middle School that provide “near-real time exposure information.” AQMD noted that the L.A. Fire Department and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducted their own monitoring, while third-party contractor Onterris has continued monitoring during the cleanup phase.

AQMD also observed smoke impacts throughout the region, issuing a particle pollution advisory in English and Spanish that remained in effect through June 24.

What's next and lingering questions

Meanwhile, Lopez said more sampling is necessary, and he questioned the effectiveness of efforts by Lineage, AQMD and LAFD. He and other advocates criticized public statements from officials, including Mayor Karen Bass’ assurances that “the air is not dangerous,” even as residents were reporting feeling sick. He also took aim at LAFD Chief Jaime Moore’s statements that ammonia was not toxic to individuals unless they had respiratory issues or came in direct contact with it. East Yard also called for evacuations in the area.

“It feels like at the city and county level they don’t currently have the capacity to really handle this situation,” Lopez added. “I think it really requires state and federal intervention to make sure that the cleanup and restoration isn’t mismanaged.”

Yoshira “Yoshi” Ornelas Van Horne, an exposure scientist and assistant professor with the UCLA Fielding School’s Department of Environmental Health Sciences, said the Lineage fire is exposing how little is done to “respond to public health emergencies and disasters” in communities like Boyle Heights and East L.A., areas “that have so often been referred to as environmental injustice communities.”

Residents and community organizations like East Yard, Ornelas Van Horne said, “are always the ones having to respond.”

“They’re relying on each other. They’re relying on their networks and their organizing power to be able to do that on the ground sampling.”

Ornelas Van Horne reached out to colleagues at Columbia’s Multi-Element Trace Analysis Laboratory in New York after she learned of the sampling taking place and of community concerns about the runoff making its way down to the L.A. River.

Those samples will be analyzed for heavy metals like cadmium, lead and arsenic, she said.

The L.A. County Public Works Department, according to the Los Angeles Times, deployed three containment booms on the L.A. River and continued to monitor the water as it made its way to the ocean.

Carrera Ruedas began collecting water samples on the third day of the fire. He said he took the first sample from the L.A. River, about 100 meters from the spout where it spilled out. The second was taken from outside Lineage. He has amassed dozens of samples since then.

Cudahy sits alongside the lower L.A. River, and after the fire, Carrera Ruedas recalled a “heavy stench that affected people in our community.” The trash he saw in the river was the foam and insulation that came from Lineage, he said.

“It really pissed me off, just to see all this trash go in there and nobody doing anything about it,” said Carrera Ruedas, who also serves as the parks and environmental justice commissioner for Cudahy.

The L.A. River, Carrera Ruedas said, is “part of our ecosystem.”

“This is not just affecting me. This affects everybody else around me. This affects people who love the beach, people who just want our water systems clean,” he said.