The Brief

Think back to the last concert you went to. Now replace the music that rang through the venue with an erratic series of pops, muffled staccatos, distorted taps, and sudden clicks. Not one sound is quite distinguishable from the other, all blending together in a medley of unsynchronized noise.

Except, instead of musicians, what you’re hearing is a mass of underground invertebrates. And they’re putting on an unorthodox show for the handful of humans who know where, and how, to tune in — a complex symphony of vibrations and pulses that relay the state of the very soils these organisms are moving within.

Although the practice of recording the sounds of nature has existed for over a century, using those recordings to analyze ecosystem health is a newer discipline. Scientists have, in recent years, started experimenting with using ecoacoustic tools to capture the full range of sounds in healthy ecosystems — such as in coral reefs, caves, and oyster beds — and applying those recordings to restoration efforts in damaged and degraded areas.

And yet, soils, and the many hidden species and organisms that subsist underground, haven’t been considered for such techniques. Until now.

People in the past have thought ecoacoustics probably can’t be used for that, because there’s no vocalization or echolocation. We’ve shown that it actually can be used,” said Robinson. The trick, he noted, is deploying sensitive-enough microphones that allow you to detect the most minuscule of movements. “Things like millipedes, the little tappy legs, you can compare that to a worm, [which has] more of a slidey action. So actually, you can tell slight differences between the acoustic profiles of these little critters.”

From millipedes to nematodes, soils across the world teem with billions of living organisms that make up Earth’s biosphere and contribute to the global food supply. All told, the ground beneath our feet houses the most biodiverse habitat on the planet. “The more invertebrates that are in the soil, the more active that they are, the more different sounds and vibrations they are emitting,” said Robinson.

His team used a belowground sampling device and sound chamber to record and collect 240 soil acoustic samples from deforested plots, locations undergoing restoration, and those with at least some of their original vegetation in a corridor of grassy woodlands in Mount Bold, South Australia. After listening to the acoustic recordings first onsite, and then removing soil samples to analyze them in controlled conditions in the field, they discovered a pattern: The acoustic complexity and diversity of the soundscapes were significantly lower in the deforested plots.

From millipedes to nematodes, soils across the world teem with billions of living organisms that make up Earth’s biosphere and contribute to the global food supply.

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Lack of diversity in a soundscape indicates that life belowground is missing, so the soils are likely to be in a state of degradation, meaning they are experiencing physical, biological, and chemical losses in quality. Degradation causes significant biodiversity decline, hampering soil’s vital ecosystem services, such as water cycling, and results in colossal consequences for the world’s agricultural productivity, curbing crop yields and livelihoods. It is a problem impacting more than three-quarters of land on Earth. “That could rise to 90 percent by 2050 unless we intervene,” said Robinson, echoing a warning issued by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2022. “We need to do something.”

Unsustainable land management, intensive farming practices, urbanization, and anthropogenic climate change can disturb and damage soil, triggering degradation — which, in turn, affects how much carbon soils have the capacity to store.

Degradation also creates a negative feedback loop for many soil species, reducing their chances of survival, and further deteriorating the soil. That’s because these soil organisms are themselves key to preserving soil health, so their presence is not only an indicator of soil viability, but also helps create that viability. Earthworms in particular augment global food production, contributing to the growth of more than 140 million metric tons of food every year by increasing plant growth and enriching soils. (If earthworms were a country, they would be the fourth-largest grain producer.)

In fact, in many parts of the world, counting earthworms is commonly deployed by farmers to measure soil health, but those measurements aren’t always accurate. “Everything has its place in ecosystem ecology. So if you’re only measuring one thing, you miss other parts,” said Victoria Burton, a postdoctoral researcher who studies soil biodiversity at the British Natural History Museum. One example is that in areas where earthworms are invasive, you’re likely to find plenty of the invertebrates in degraded habitats, which by that nature would make counting their abundance a poor benchmark for healthy land. This bolsters the case for widely applying soil acoustics for more accurate readings in agricultural and conservation contexts, she said.

French farmer Nicolas Denieul shows earthworms in a field in Piace, northwestern France.

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Burton added that this research is the first of its kind to show how ecoacoustics can be used to identify soil health specific to the grassy woodland ecosystem — a study released last year, also helmed by Robinson, found similar results when measuring soil biodiversity in Britain’s temperate forests — but she has questions regarding how this technique would perform in other ecosystems. She’s exhilarated by the prospect, however: Her team is installing soil acoustic sensors in the museum’s gardens to better monitor changes to urban wildlife in the space.

Scientists aren’t only listening to underground realms for classification purposes. They’re also using acoustics to see if they can speed up the restoration process, according to Robinson. “The vision, I think, is to see if degraded soils can be played sounds that help them recover,” he said.

In another forthcoming study, his team discovered that, when they played certain sounds to a type of fungus called Trichoderma, widely used in agriculture to protect crops against diseases and improve plant health and revegetation, it effectively stimulated organism growth. Of course, this result is preliminary, but offers up major implications for how ecoacoustics could be applied to deteriorated soils on farmland. Monitoring soil health by way of soundscapes could be used by farmers and growers to figure out where they need to preemptively intervene. And playing back healthy soil recordings in eroded swaths of land could, in theory, encourage that beneficial fungi growth, jump-starting restoration.

As with any body of research in its infancy, just how this technology will be applied, and what degree of impact the use of ecoacoustics could wield in efforts to restore deteriorating soils, remains up in the air. The biggest uncertainties revolve around how different soil types and properties may affect sound transmission belowground, in addition to how this technique might perform in other ecosystems and geographies.

While researchers work to figure out those missing pieces, the natural symphonies found within soil are beginning to attract attention from unlikely sources. Last year, a composer in Norway reached out to Robinson with an unusual request: She wanted to incorporate sounds emitted by earthworms into one of her orchestral productions.

“It’s quite interesting to hear a millipede, who’s got tiny legs. It’s like a little hairy, high-frequency tapping sound. Then, for instance, a snail, which is like a slow, slimy, glide-y sound, and the worm is something in between,” said Robinson. “That’s like listening to Mother Earth, isn’t it?”

MEXICO CITY — The Mexican army killed the leader of the powerful Jalisco New Generation Cartel, Nemesio Rubén Oseguera Cervantes, "El Mencho, " in an operation Sunday, a federal official said.

The official, who requested anonymity because they were not authorized to speak publicly, said it happened during a military operation in the western state of Jalisco.

It followed several hours of roadblocks with burning vehicles in Jalisco and other states. Such tactics are commonly used by the cartels to block military operations.

Videos circulating social media showed plumes of smoke billowing over the city of Puerto Vallarta, a major city in Jalisco, and sprinting through the airport of the state's capital in panic. On Sunday afternoon, Air Canada announced it was suspending flights to Puerto Vallarta "due to an ongoing security situation" and advised customers not to go to their airport.

The U.S. State Department had offered a reward of up to $15 million for information leading to the arrest of El Mencho. The Jalisco New Generation Cartel, known as CJNG, is one of the most powerful and fasted growing criminal organizations in Mexico and was born in 2009.

In February, the Trump administration designated the cartel as a foreign terrorist organization.

It has been one of the most aggressive cartels in its attacks on the military—including helicopters—and a pioneer in launching explosives from drones and installing mines. In 2020, it carried out a spectacular assassination attempt with grenades and high-powered rifles in the heart of Mexico City against the then head of the capital's police force and now head of federal security.

The DEA considers this cartel to be as powerful as the Sinaloa cartel, one of Mexico's most infamous criminal groups, with a presence in all 50 U.S. states where it distributes tons of drugs. It is one of the main suppliers of cocaine to the U.S. market and, like the Sinaloa cartel, earns billions from the production of fentanyl and methamphetamines.

Since 2017, Oseguera Cervantes has been indicted several times in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia.

The most recent superseding indictment, filed on April 5, 2022, charges Oseguera Cervantes with conspiracy and distribution of controlled substances (methamphetamine, cocaine, and fentanyl) for the purpose of illegal importation into the United States and use of firearms during and in connection with drug trafficking offenses. Oseguera Cervantes is also charged under the Drug Kingpin Enforcement Act for directing a continuing criminal enterprise.
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Hermon — Some shoppers heading into Fresco Market were lost in their phones, but when they momentarily looked up, they were greeted by a flap of brilliant green feathers and a cheery squawk. Phones were put away.

“Pepe! Hey Pepe! So good to see you!”

Perched on the shoulder of T.J. Gonzalez, Pepe the Parrot was in full greeter mode. Wide-eyed and seeming to almost smile as he surveyed the parking lot and his approaching public, Pepe did what he naturally does: make people happy.

A common sight at the Hermon market, near where they live, Gonzalez and Pepe can also be found at community centers, farmers’ markets and local events. They often take the Metro into downtown Los Angeles, Long Beach and other locations.

There’s no money asked, stressed Gonzalez, adding that Pepe simply adores the attention. “People want to see and talk with him more than me,” he joked as he cracked a nut and placed it in his mouth. On cue, the bird reached around Gonzalez’s mouth to retrieve it.

Michael Eagle-Hall of El Sereno is delighted to meet Pepe outside of the Fresco Market in Hermon.

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A mail carrier for 37 years before he retired, Gonzalez found Pepe, a red-crowned Amazon (flocks are often seen in Northeast L.A.) in July 2021. The chick had fallen out of a nest and was flailing on a busy street in San Marino. “He was like roadkill,” said Gonzalez, who watched cars drive over (without striking) the bird.

Gonzalez retrieved the parrot and looked for help, but wildlife rehabbers said they’d euthanize the bird since it had a broken wing. Gonzalez instead brought him to a vet and christened him Pepe.

Since Pepe could not fly, Gonzalez started walking him around the neighborhood. He soon discovered how kids and adults enjoyed interacting with the parrot. Pepe is also a social media darling, with more than 8,600 followers on Instagram.

Pepe is more of a squawker than a talker, but Gonzalez has learned how to art-direct photos of people and the bird, instructing them on how to hold their hands and arms best. “We just want that smile because that’s all that Pepe wants from you,” said Gonzalez.

Crews have now recovered the bodies of all nine backcountry skiers who were killed in an avalanche in Northern California earlier this week. It marks an end to what authorities on Saturday described as an agonizing five-day search and recovery operation complicated by intense winter storms northwest of Lake Tahoe.

"While we wish we could have saved them all, we are grateful that we can bring them home," said Nevada County Sheriff Shannan Moon during a Saturday news conference.

Until Saturday, authorities had not confirmed the death of a ninth victim, a skier who had been missing and presumed dead. Officials say their body was found near the eight other victims that have now been recovered. Authorities said avalanche hazards and weather conditions were too dangerous most of the week to search for the remaining victim or recover the bodies.

Four of the bodies were recovered on Friday, and the rest of the bodies were recovered on Saturday, all in the Castle Peak area where the avalanche – one of the deadliest in California history — struck. Six people from the group of 15 skiers survived Tuesday's disaster, the last day of a three-day backcountry ski trip. One guide and five travelers were among the survivors.

Helicopters with the California National Guard as well as the California Highway Patrol were used to hoist the remaining bodies from the mountain, officials said at the press conference.

On Friday, officials were able to use specialized techniques with the help of Pacific Gas & Electric to reduce the avalanche risk.

The ski trip was organized by Blackbird Mountain Guides, an outdoor tour company based in Truckee, Calif. Moon confirmed the identities of the victims. Three guides were killed: Andrew Alissandratos, 34, from Verdi, Nev.; Michael Henry, 30, from Soda Springs, Calif.; and Nicole Choo, 42, of South Lake Tahoe, Calif. The other victims, who had signed up for the group trip, are: Carrie Atkin, 46, of Soda Springs; Lizabeth Clabaugh, 52, of Boise, Idaho; Danielle Keatley, 44, of Soda Springs and Larkspur, Calif.; Kate Morse, 45, of Soda Springs and Tiburon, Calif.; Caroline Sekar, 45, of Soda Springs and San Francisco; and Katherine Vitt, 43, of Greenbrae, Calif.

The Sierra Avalanche Center classified the avalanche between a D2 and D3 on the avalanche danger scale.

"A D2 would take down a person. A D3 would take down a house, so it was right in between those. It was described by them as a football field length of a path of the avalanche," Sheriff Moon said on Saturday.

Multiple agencies are investigating.

"We are investigating the incident to determine if there were any factors that would be considered criminal negligence," Ashley Quadros with the Nevada County Sheriff's Office said in an email to NPR on Sunday. "It is a standard investigation. It is too early to know if criminal charges will be applicable, as the investigation is preliminary and remains active and ongoing."

The area will be closed to visitors for several weeks.
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